The legacy of the Pacific War in Southeast Asia. A comparative examination of Cambodia and Indonesia 1945 - 2011
The Pacific War is, without argument, the defining event in the modern history of Cambodia and Indonesia for the simple fact that it marked the beginning of the post colonial world. In the period immediately post war, it appeared that Cambodia was to enjoy a far kinder legacy from the Pacific War than Indonesia was going to. In Cambodia, the Vichy French government had been left in at least nominal control and in contrast to Indonesia, no serious efforts were made by the Japanese to foster nationalist sentiments. The Pacific War itself, had had a negligible effect on Cambodia. It was when the Americans became involved in Cambodia that things changed very quickly and for the worse. Up until this time Cambodia was peaceful, it was prosperous, it was politically neutral and so long as you stayed away from politics, life was good.
In Indonesia the Dutch administration was removed by the Japanese and Indonesian nationalist sentiments encouraged[1]. The Japanese had identified Indonesian leaders sympathetic to them. Amongst these was Sukarno[2] who became prominent in the Japanese administration. The future president Suharto joined the Japanese militia during this time and had reached the rank of Lieutenant by war’s end[3]. The Indonesian Republic was declared at the Pacific War’s end in 1945. The Indonesian National Revolution lasted until 1949 when Indonesian independence was formally recognised by the Netherlands government[4]. Not only was the Revolution being fought at this time, there was also a war between Republican forces and Islamist groups such as Dar Ul Islam[5] and separatist groups[6][7][8].
The situation in Cambodia couldn’t have been more different from that in Indonesia[9]. A ineffectual communist insurgency began in 1945. In 1949 Cambodia was granted limited autonomy[10]. In 1953 France granted independence to Cambodia with king Norodom Sihanouk as head of state[11]. Pol Pot, the future leader of the Khmer Rouge, was educated first in Cambodia and then France during this period. It was at this time that Pol Pot began his involvement in Communism.
Cambodia achieved a period of peace and prosperity in the 1950’s and most of the 1960’s under the increasingly autocratic rule of king Norodom Sihanouk[12]. In the late 1960’s Cambodia became a pawn in the Cold War[13]. In 1969 the US attempted to interdict the flow of men and materiel from Communist North Viet Nam through Cambodia to Communist guerrillas fighting in South Viet Nam[14]. At that time the Khmer Rouge were militarily weak[15]. This changed as a result of the American intervention[16]. Sihanouk was deposed by General Lon Nol in 1970[17]. The US supported the Lon Nol government against the now very militarily effective Khmer Rouge[18] . By April 1975 the Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot had captured the Cambodian capital Phnom Penh[19]. The ensuing genocide killed at least 2 million Cambodians[20]. The Khmer Rouge repeatedly crossed into South Viet Nam and this lead to the Vietnamese invasion and control of Cambodia in 1978[21]. War between the Vietnamese and a Khmer Rouge led insurgency, which was covertly funded by the US, continued until 1991 and the Vietnamese withdrawal[22]. A Khmer Rouge insurgency was to last until 1998 and the death of Pol Pot. From 1991-3 the United Nations administered Cambodia. It was during this period that HIV/ AIDS were introduced into Cambodia. Cambodia now has one of the highest incidences of HIV /AIDS in Asia[23][24].
Cambodia has been hobbled both economically and socially by the legacy of American involvement. The Khmer Rouge exterminated the intellectual and cultural wealth of Cambodia[25] [26]and Cambodia remains poor with one quarter of the population living beneath the poverty line. The continuing border tensions with Thailand raise the possibility that the Thai government will create a pretext for invasion once the extent of oil and natural gas finds in that region are confirmed[27][28]. Justice for the survivors of the Khmer Rouge genocide has been extremely limited and slow in coming[29].
As Cambodia fell apart, Indonesia came together. Sukarno,Indonesia’s first president, owed many political favours to the Communists [30][31]. Indonesia became a leader of the Non Aligned Movement [32][33] and developed strong ties with the Soviet Union and China. Indonesia engaged in a border war known as the Konfrontasi with the newly established Malaysia from 1962-5[34]. On September 30, 1965 there was an attempted coup from within the armed forces in which six of the country’s generals were murdered. This was excuse enough for the military led by the now General Suharto to engage in a brutal anti communist crackdown, which coincided with the overthrow of Sukarno by Suharto . The Communist Party of Indonesia was exterminated[35]. Economically Sukarno had been a disaster for Indonesia[36] .
With the advent of Suharto, Indonesia entered a period of stability and economic growth. Democratic institutions were undermined in favour of stability, and domestic opposition to the regime suppressed[37]. There were two events of note in regards to foreign policy, Indonesia became involved in the Cambodian Civil War [38] and in December 1975 invaded East Timor[39]. Suharto was to remain in power until 1998 when his regime ended amidst wide spread student led protests. The kleptocracy of Suharto undermined public confidence in the state with all institutions including the presidency being widely accepted as corrupt.[40]
The end of the Suharto era was a period of intense instability in Indonesia. Despite this, Indonesia has successfully dealt with the rise of Islamic extremism. Indonesia has also embraced democracy, has held elections that are viewed to be largely free of corruption. There was a very real fear that the exit of East Timor from Indonesia in May of 2002 would lead to the breakup of the Indonesian state. To date this has not happened[41].
Since Sukarno was removed from power the Indonesian economy has the showed consistent growth. Only 13% of Indonesia’s population now live below the poverty line. Education is relatively well funded[42] and foreign students attend at least one Indonesian university[43]. In contrast with Cambodia, all prospects for Indonesia look positive. The separatist movements of the past are no longer active and ethnic and religious conflicts in provinces such as Kalimantan and Maluku are on the decline. Recently however, concerns have begun to be raised that this may be changing.[44] Despite the enormous ethnic and linguistic range of the Indonesian population, the government has been able to propagate a sentiment of belonging to Indonesia, and the language of the Indonesian government, Bahasa Indonesia, is increasingly the first language of the population.
In summation, both Cambodia and Indonesia have and continue to face their legacies from the colonial period. Both countries have undergone periods of war and political turmoil. At the present time both countries are experiencing a period of peace and relative prosperity. What separates these neighbours is the future. With both having survived their national infancy, it is Cambodia that faces the bleakest future. Cambodia has the misfortune to be neighboured by a militarily strong[45] Thailand, available evidence points to continued problems with Thailand.
Indonesia having overcome political and ethnic centrifugal forces has a very promising future. There are no immediate threats to prosperity and there is no reason why Indonesia should not continue to be the nation she is now.
Brown. C “A Short History Of Indonesia, The Unlikely Nation” Allen & Unwin 2003 page 140
Vickers. A “A History of Modern Indonesia” Cambridge University Press 2005 page 112
[8] Kahin. A “REBELLION TO INTEGRATION WEST SUMATRA AND THE INDONESIAN POLITY Amsterdam University Press 1999 page 211
[13] Clymer. K “THE UNITED STATES AND CAMBODIA, 1870- 1969 From curiosity to confrontation” RoutledgeCurzon 2004 pages 128-152.
Bizot. F “The Gate” Vintage Press pages 14 – 19
Ham. P “Vietnam: The Australian War” Harper Collins Publishers 2007 page 524
[14] Clymer. K “THE UNITED STATES AND CAMBODIA, 1870- 1969 From curiosity to confrontation” RoutledgeCurzon 2004 page 1
[15] Clymer. K “THE UNITED STATES AND CAMBODIA, 1969 - 2000 A troubled relationship” RoutledgeCurzon 2004 page 46
[16] Clymer. K “THE UNITED STATES AND CAMBODIA, 1969 – 2000 A troubled relationship”. RoutledgeCurzon 2004 Pages 11 - 12 21
Ung. L “FIRST THEY KILLED MY FATHER a daughter of Cambodia remembers” Flamingo Press 2000 pages 23 – 31
Clymer. K “THE UNITED STATES AND CAMBODIA, 1969 – 2000 A troubled relationship”. RoutledgeCurzon 2004 page 107
[22] Clymer. K “THE UNITED STATES AND CAMBODIA, 1969 – 2000 A troubled relationship”. RoutledgeCurzon 2004 pages 138 - 170
[23] http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/Countries/asia/cambodia_profile.pdf
http:www.apps.who.int/globalatlas/predefinedReports/EFS2008/full/EFS2008_KH.pdf
[24] http://www.globalhealthcommittee.org/history.html#link_1990
[25] www.nationmaster.com/red/country/cb-cambodia/edu-education&all=1
[28] www.clc-asia.com/analysis/the-struggle-between-thailand-and-cambodia-over-oil-and-gas-resources/
[29] www.voanews.com/khmer-english/news/Tribunal-Parties-Want-Faster-Prosecution-at-UN-Court-129378318.html
[32] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement
[38] Clymer. K “THE UNITED STATES AND CAMBODIA, 1969 – 2000 A troubled relationship”. RoutledgeCurzon 2004 pages 27, 36 - 7
[42] www.nationmaster.com/country/id-indonesia/edu-education
[43] www.arts.monash.edu.au/indonesian/incountry/index.php
[44] www.theage.com.au/opinion/politics/indonesia-cannot-be-complacent-20110905-1ju4d.html
[45] http://www.nationmaster.com/compare/Cambodia/Thailand/Military
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